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Introduction to the Text

The story of Dracula has become a signature piece the Western literary canon thanks to Bram Stoker’s rendition of the centuries-old Eastern European tale. However, the original narrative, whose roots are believed to be from the Southern Slavic-speaking regions of Eastern Europe, is not a tale of love and everlasting life. It is an account of the life of Dracula’s prototype, the 15th-century Wallachian prince Vlad Tepes, whose merciless behavior as a voivode (warlord) led to the moniker Vlad the Impaler. The epithet Dracula is used in the text rather than the name Vlad. The origins of the moniker Dracula are still debated. The two leading explanations are that it is either a title denoting his father Vlad Dracul’s membership in the Order of the Dragon, or it is a derivation of the Romanian term drac with the meaning “son of the Devil.”

The earliest Old Russian version of Vlad the Impaler’s life dates to 1486, when an Orthodox Monk, Efrosin, copied the story into one of his notebooks. There is no consensus on the origin of the story, but it is accepted that Efrosin’s is the earliest surviving copy. Specialists hypothesize that he could have received the source text from the infamous 15th-century Muscovite diplomat and heretic Fedor Kuritsyn. Kuritsyn could have taken the story from the court of the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. Others argue that Kuritsyn’s brother, Ivan Volk Kuritsyn, translated the story and passed it on to Efrosin. We know for sure that Efrosin’s rendition is the first Russian/East Slavic narrative of Vlad the Impaler’s devious deeds.

Efrosin’s manuscript demonstrates the diverse reading and writing culture of the Russian Orthodox monks at the Kirillov-Beloozersky (St. Cyril-Beloozero) monastery in northern Russia. Efrosin became a focus of Soviet and Russian medievalists when his collection of religious and secular texts was transferred from the St. Petersburg Theological Academy and placed in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg in 1918 (then the Russian Public Library). The manuscript in which “Dracula” is found is one of only six miscellanies that have survived to the present day from Efrosin’s library. The manuscript represents the secular and private writings of the monk whom scholars describe as the monastery’s “academic bookman.” Efrosin’s considerable personal collection of writings includes multiple secular tales. Furthermore, Robert Romanchuk, a specialist in philology, has argued that Efrosin’s secular manuscripts are unique and represent an “individual with an interest in ‘forbidden knowledge,” rather than an overarching intellectual trend among the Orthodox monks in the monastery. Another example of Efrosin’s interest in forbidden knowledge is is “The Tale of Solomon and Kitovras,” which was later added to the same notebook.

Introduction to the Source

The “Tale of Dracula” was produced in 1490 in the Kirillov-Beloozersky monastery near Beloozero (Belozersk), Russia. The monk Efrosin adapted the text from an unknown source. At the end of the text, he notes that he wrote an earlier version of the story in 1486 and rewrote it in 1490 (the 1486 version has not survived). The “Tale” is part of a 500-folio manuscript codex in which Efrosin copied secular tales and diverse texts of encyclopedic content. Scholars consider the “Tale” one of the first historical novels in Russian literature. Some believe that this text, along with Efrosin’s other writings, shows a Renaissance-like movement in Russian Orthodox religious culture in the late 15th century. The book in which the “Tale” is included is one of only seven surviving manuscripts by Efrosin. They are held in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg. For the text’s transcription and translation, I have used digital copies of the original manuscript #11/1088, fond 351, folio pages 204-217 of the Efrosin Collection at the Russian National Library.

About this Edition

The transcription retains the original elements of the manuscript. The goal of the transcription is to render the manuscript as closely as possible, including the superscript letters, abbreviations, spelling errors, and punctuation. Efrosin relied on commas, periods, and diacritic marks on certain letters to mark the beginning of a new word. Personal and geographic names have been translated in the context of 15th-century history. I referenced Matei Cazacu’s monograph Dracula to verify these names.

I’d like to thank Dr. Julia Verkholantsev of the University of Pennsylvania for her assistance in this project.

Further Reading

Cazacu, Matei. ed. Stephen w. Reinert. trans. from the French, etc. by Nicole Mordarski, Stephen W. Reinert, Alice Brinton, and Catherine Healey. Dracula. Boston: Brill, 2017.

• A monograph that examines the life of Vlad Tepes, exploring his influence on Stoker’s Dracula and contemporary Eastern European vampire lore.

Nandris, Grigore. “The Historical Dracula: The Theme of His Legend in the Western and in the Eastern Literatures of Europe.” Comparative Literature Studies 3, no. 4 (1966): 367-396.

• This dated yet fascinating article discusses the history of the Dracula narrative, from Bram Stoker’s impact on Western literature to the folkloric and historical origins of the vampire tale. Nandris also compares the Western and Eastern European renditions of the story.

  National Library of Russia. “Fifteenth-Century Euphrosynus Manuscripts.” http://expositions.nlr.ru/EfrosinManuscripts/ eng/efr_sborn.php.

  • English-language version of the National Library of Russia’s website on the Efrosin Collection. This page includes descriptions of the material culture of the collection including how the manuscripts were bound and used in the monastery.

  Romanchuk, Robert. Byzantine Hermeneutics and Pedagogy in the Russian North: Monks and Masters at the Kirillo-Belozerskii Monastery, 1397-1501. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.

  • Romanchuk’s discusses the origins of the Dracula story and how Efrosin may have obtained the now lost original Old Russian tale (pages 8-25, specifically).

  Romanchuk, Robert. “ ‘Intellectual Silence’ and Intellectual Endeavor in Medieval Slavia Orthodoxa.” Russian History 46 (2019): 193-212.

  • This article uses the manuscripts produced by Orthodox monks, including Efrosin of the Kirillov monastery, to show how the academic needs of the monastic institutions shaped their book production.

  The Tale of Dracula the Voivode | сказанїе ѡ дракоулѣ воеводѣ

  быⷭ҇ в моунᲅьꙗнскои земли греческыѧ вѣры хрᲅⷭ҇їанинъ воевода именеⷨ҇ дракоула влашескиⷨ҇ ꙗзыкоⷨ҇, а нашиⷨ҇ дїаволъ. ᲅолико злом҇дръ ꙗкоⷤ҇ по имени его, (// 204v) ᲅако и жиᲅїе его. Прїидоша к немоу нѣкогда ѿ ᲅоурьскаⷢ҇ поклисарїе. и егда внидоша к немоу и поклонишаⷭ҇ по своемоу ѡбычаю, а капъ своиⷯ҇ з главъ не снѧша. ѡн же вопроси иⷯ҇, чᲅо ра

  ᲅаковоу срамоᲅоу ми оучинисᲅе. ѡниⷤ҇ ѿвѣщаша,

  ᲅаковъ, ѡбычаи нашь гдр҇ь и землѧ наша имѣе. ѡн же гл҇а имъ, и азъ хощоу вашеⷢ҇ закона поᲅвердиᲅи, да крѣпко сᲅоиᲅе. и повелѣ имъ гвоздїемъ малыⷨ҇ желѣзныⷨ҇ ко глава҇ⷨ прибиᲅи капы. и ѿпоусᲅи ихъ, рекъ имъ, шеⷣше скажиᲅе гдр҇ю вашемꙋ, ѡнъ навыкъ ѿ ваⷭ҇, ᲅоу, срамоᲅоу ᲅерпѣᲅи. мыⷤ҇ не навыкохоⷨ҇. да не посылае своеⷢ҇ ѡбычаѧ (// 205r) ко иныⷨ҇ гдр҇емъ, кои не хоᲅѧ его имѣᲅи, но оу себе его да держи.

  
  

  Ц҇рь же велми разсердиᲅи себе ѡ ᲅоⷨ҇ и поиде воинсᲅвоⷨ҇ на неⷢ҇ и прїиде на неⷢ҇ со многими силами. ѡн же, собравъ елико имѣаше оу себе воиска и оудари на ᲅоурковъ нощїю, и мноⷤ҇сᲅво изби иⷯ҇, и невозмо҇ⷤ проᲅивоу великоⷢ҇ воиска малыми люⷣми, и възраᲅисѧ. и кои с нимъ з бою ᲅоⷢ҇ прїидоша. и нача ихъ саⷨ҇ смоᲅриᲅи, кои раненъ спре

  ᲅако гл҇а всемоу воискоу своемоу. кᲅо хоще смр҇ᲅь помышлѧᲅи. ᲅои не хо

  There was in the Muntenian1 land, a Christian voivode2 of the Greek faith named Dracula in the Wallachian tongue, but in ours, the Devil3. His life was so wicked, like his name. Once, ambas-sadors from the Turkish tsar came to him. And when they came in they lowered their heads according to their custom, but they did not take off their caps from their heads. And he asked them, “Why did you do that – you came to a great lord and you subject-ed me to such humiliation?” And they responded, “Such, Mas-ter, is the custom of our land.” He said to them, “And I want to confirm your custom so that you may observe it firmly.” And he commanded that their caps be nailed to their heads with small metal spikes. And he released them and said, “Go and explain to your master: if he is used to enduring humiliation from you, we are not used to it. And let him not send his custom to other rulers, who do not want to have it, but let him keep it to himself.”

  
  

  And the tsar was very angry about this and set off against Dracula with his army, and came against him with considerable forces. He [Dracula], having gathered as much of his own army as he had, attacked the Turks at night and killed a great num-ber of them. But not being able withstand a great army with so few people, Dracula turned back. And he began to examine those who came with him from the battle; to those wounded in the front, he gave great honor and bestowed knighthood, but he commanded those wounded from behind to be impaled on a stake, saying, “You are not a man, but a woman.” And when he went to the Turks again, he said to all his warriors: “He who thinks about death, let him not go with me, but remain here.” Having heard that, the tsar went away with great shame; having lost countless of his army, he dared not go against Dracula.

  
  

  Цр҇ь же поклисарѧ посла к немоу да емоу даⷭ҇ дань. дракоула же велми почⷭ҇ᲅи поклисарѧ ѡноⷢ҇. и показа емоу все свое имѣнїе, и ре҇ⷱ емоу, азъ не ᲅокмо хощоу дань даваᲅи цр҇ю, но сⷪ всѣмъ своимъ воинсᲅвоⷨ҇ и со всею казною хощоу к немоу иᲅи на слоуⷤ҇боу. да како ми повелиᲅъ, ᲅако емоу служоу. и ᲅы, возвѣсᲅи цр҇ю какъ поидоу к немоу, да не велиᲅь ц҇рь по своеи земли никоего зла оучꙵниᲅи мнѣ, и моимъ людеⷨ҇. а ꙗзъ скⷪро хощоу по ᲅебѣ ко цр҇ю иᲅи. и дань принесоу и самъ к немꙋ (// 206r) прїидоу. ц҇рь же оуслыша҇ ⷡ ᲅо ѿ посла своего чᲅо дракоула хоще прїиᲅи к немоу на службоу. и посла еⷢ҇ почⷭ҇ᲅи и ѡдари много. и велми раⷣ быⷭ҇ бѣ бо ᲅогаⷣ раᲅоуѧсѧ со восᲅочными.

  And the tsar sent an ambassador to demand tribute from him. And Dracula received that ambassador with great honor, and showed to him all his possessions, and said to him, “I not only want to give tribute to the tsar, but with all my army and all my coffers, I want to go into his service. And as he commands me, so I will serve him. And you, tell the tsar this: when I go to him, let him command that no evil will be done to me or my people in his land. I will go to the tsar soon, following you, and I will bring him the tribute and come to him myself.” The tsar, hearing this from his envoy, that Dracula wanted to come to him in service, bestowed honors and many gifts upon his envoy. And he was very glad because he was then waging war in the east.

  
  

  и посла скоро по всѣⷨⷨ҇ градоⷨ҇ⷨ и по земли, да когда дракоула поиде, никоегоⷤ зла никᲅо, да бы, дракоулѣ не оучинилъ. но еще и чᲅⷭ҇ь емоу воздавали. дракоула же поиде, събравсѧ съ всѣⷨⷨ҇ воиньсᲅвоⷨ҇. и присᲅавове црⷭ҇ᲅїи с нимъ. и велїю чесᲅь емоу воздавахоу. ѡн же преиде по земли его ꙗко, е҇, дн҇и. и внезапоу верноусѧ и нача҇ плѣниᲅи градове и села. и мно҇ⷤⷤсᲅво много поплѣни и изсѣче. ѡвыⷯ҇ на колїе сажахоу ᲅоурко҇ⷡ. а иныⷯ҇ (//206v) на полы пресѣкаꙗ и жжигаꙗ. и до ссоущиⷯ҇ млаⷣнець. ничᲅо҇ⷤⷤⷤ ѡсᲅави всю землю ᲅоу поусᲅоу оучини. прочиⷯ҇ же иже соу. хрⷭ҇ᲅїѧне на свою землю прегна и насели. и мно҇ⷤⷤсᲅво много корисᲅи взеⷨ҇ⷨ возвраᲅиⷭ҇. присᲅавовъ ᲅѣⷯ҇ почᲅи ѿпусᲅи. реⷦ҇, шеⷣше повѣсᲅе цр҇ю вашемоу ꙗко҇ⷤ видѣсᲅе. сколко могоⷯ҇ ᲅолико есмь емоу послꙋжиⷧ҇ⷧ҇. и буде емоу оугоⷣна моѧ слоуⷤ҇ⷤба. и азъ еще хощоу емоу ᲅако слоужиᲅи, какова ми есᲅь сила. цр҇ь же ничᲅо҇ⷤ емꙋ не може оучиниᲅи. но срамоⷨ҇ побѣженъ быⷭ҇.

  
  

  И ᲅолико ненавидѧ во своеи земли зла. ꙗко хᲅо оучини кое зло. ᲅаᲅбоу или разбои. или коую (//207r) лжоу или неправдоу. ᲅои никако не боуде҇ живъ. ащеⷧ҇ велики болѧринъ. иⷧ҇ сщ҇енниⷦⷦ҇, иⷧ҇ иноⷦ҇, или просᲅы. аще и велико баⷢ҇ᲅьсᲅво имѣл бы кᲅо, не може искоупиᲅиⷭ҇ ѿ смр҇ᲅи. и ᲅолико грозенъ быⷭ҇. исᲅочникъ его и кладѧⷥ҇ на единоⷨ҇ мѣсᲅѣ, и к

  ᲅомоу кладѧзоу и исᲅочникоу пришли поуᲅїе мнози ѿ многыⷯ҇ сᲅранъ. и прихожⷣахоу люⷣ̏е мнозии пїѧхоу ѿ кладѧзѧ и исᲅочника водоу сᲅоудена бо бѣ и слаⷣка. ѡн же оу ᲅого кладѧзѧ на поусᲅоⷨ҇ⷨ мѣсᲅѣ посᲅави чароу велїю и дивноу злаᲅоу. и хᲅо хоᲅѧще водоу пиᲅи, да ᲅою чарою пїеᲅъ на

  ᲅоⷨ҇ⷨ мѣсᲅѣ да посᲅави.

  
  

  и елико ѡно времѧ пребыⷭ҇. никᲅо҇ⷤ смѣаше ᲅоу чароу взѧᲅи. (//207v) Единоюⷤ҇ поусᲅи по всеи земли свое велѣнїе, да кᲅо сᲅаръ иⷧ҇ немощенъ, иⷧ҇ чимъ вреденъ иⷧ҇ нищъ, вси да прїидоу к немоу. и собрашаⷭ҇ бесчисленое мно҇ⷤⷤьсᲅвⷪ нищиⷯⷯ҇ и сᲅранныⷯ҇ к немоу чающе ѿ него великїа млᲅⷭ҇и. ѡн же повелѣ собраᲅи всⷯⷯ҇ѣ во единоу храминꙋ, великоу на ᲅо оусᲅроеноу. и повелѣ даᲅи имъ ꙗсᲅи и пиᲅи доволно, ѡниⷤⷤ҇ ꙗдше и возвеселишаⷭ҇. ѡн же са҇ⷨⷨ приде к нимъ и гл҇а имъ чᲅо еще ᲅребоуеᲅе. ѡниⷤⷤ҇ вси ѿвѣщаша вѣдае гдр҇ю вг҇ъ и ᲅвое величесᲅво, как ᲅѧ б҇ъ вразоуми. ѡн же гл҇а к ниⷨ҇ хощеᲅе ли да соᲅворю ваⷭ҇ беспечалны на сеⷨ҇ свѣᲅѣ, и ничиⷨ҇ же ноужни боудеᲅе. ѡниⷤ҇ чающе ѿ него велико нѣчᲅо. и гл҇аша (//208r) вси хощемъ гдр҇ю.

  And the tsar sent a message to all the cities across the land so that when Dracula went through, no one should cause him any harm, but instead should honor him. And Dracula set off, having assembled his entire army, and the tsar’s wardens accompa-nied him and greatly honored him. And he passed through the tsar’s land [Turkish land] for five days, and suddenly turned back and began to capture towns and villages. And Dracula captured and killed great multitudes: some Turks he impaled on a stake, and others he cut in half and burned, including suckling infants. He left nothing, emptying the entire land, and those who were Christians he drove to his land and resettled. And he returned, having seized a great multitude of riches and, having honored the wardens, he let them go, saying: “Go tell your tsar what you saw – I served him as much as I could, and if my service pleas-es him, I am ready to serve him this way again, as much as I can.” And the tsar could do nothing against him but was defeat-ed with shame.

  
  

  And he [Dracula] hated the evil in his own land so much that if anyone committed any crime, theft, robbery, lie or injury, he would not live. Whether he be a noble boyar4, a priest, a monk, or a commoner, even if he had great wealth, still he could not ransom himself from death. And that is how formidable Drac-ula was. There was a well and its spring in his land, and many routes from many lands converged at this spring and well. And many people arrived and drank the cold and sweet water from the well and spring. He took (moved) the well to an empty space and there he placed a large, beautiful golden goblet, and anyone who wanted to drink the water could drink from the goblet in that set place.

  
  

  And much time passed, but no one there dared take the gob-let. Once he sent an order across his lands that all who were old, weak, crippled, or poor, should come to him. And innumer-able multitudes of the poor and wayfarers gathered before him awaiting his great mercy. He commanded them all to assem-ble in one great house. And he commanded that they be giv-en enough to eat and to drink. They feasted and rejoiced. He came to them and said: “What more do you require?” They all answered him: “God knows, Master, Your Majesty, as God will instruct you.” He said to them, “So you want me to make you happy in this world, and you would need nothing more?” They expected nothing grand from him and all said, “This is what we want, Master.”

  
  

  ѡн же повeлѣ запереᲅи хра҇ⷨⷨ и зажещи ѡгнеⷨ҇, и вси

  ᲅоу изгорѣша. и гл҇аше к болѧроⷨ҇ⷨ своимъ, да вѣсᲅе чᲅо оучиниⷯ҇ ᲅако. и никᲅо҇ⷤ да не боудеᲅь нищь в моей земли, но вси боⷢ҇ᲅїи. вᲅорое свободиⷯⷯ҇ ихъ да не сᲅражоу никᲅо҇ⷤⷤ ѿ ниⷯⷯ҇ на семъ свѣᲅѣ ѿ нищеᲅы иⷧ҇ ѿ недоуга.

  
  

  Единоюⷤ҇ прїидоша к немоу ѿ оугорскыѧ земли два лаᲅинска мниха млᲅⷭ҇ыни раⷣ. ѡн же повелѣ ихъ развесᲅи разно. и призва к себѣ единого ѿ ниⷯ҇ и показа емоу окроуⷢ҇ двора мно҇ⷤⷤьсᲅво бесчисленое людеи на колѣхъ и на колесⷯ҇ѣ, и вопроси его добро ли

  ᲅако съᲅвориⷯⷯ҇ и како ᲅи соу иже на колїи. (//208v) ѡн же гл҇а ни гдр҇ю зло чиниш а, без млⷭ҇ᲅи казниши, поⷣбае гдр҇ю млⷭ҇ᲅивоу быᲅи. а ᲅи же на кольи м꙽҇иц҇и соу. призвав же и дроугаго и вопроси его ᲅако҇ⷤ. ѡн же ѿвѣща. ᲅы гдр҇ь ѿ ва҃ посᲅавленъ еси лⷯиⷪ

  ᲅворѧщиⷯ҇ казниᲅи. а добро ᲅворѧщиⷯ҇ жаловаᲅи. а

  ᲅи лихо ᲅворили по своимъ дѣломъ въспрїали, ѡн же призвавъ перваго. и гл҇а к немоу, да почᲅо ᲅы из монасᲅырѧ и ис келїи своеѧ ходиши по великыⷨ҇ гдр҇емъ не знаꙗ ничᲅо҇ⷤ. а нн҇ѣ самъ еси гл҇алъ, ꙗко

  ᲅи мⷱ҇нц҇и соу. азъ и ᲅебе хощоу мⷱ҇нк҇а оучиниᲅи. да и ᲅы с ними боудеши мⷱ҇нк҇ъ. и повелѣ его на колъ посадиᲅи про (//209r) ходомъ, а дроугомоу повелѣ даᲅи. Н҇ доукаᲅъ злаᲅа. гл҇ѧ ᲅы еси разоуменъ моуⷤ҇ и повелѣ его на возѣ с почесᲅїемъ ѿвесᲅи и до оугорскыѧ земли.

  
  

  Нѣкогдаⷤ҇ прїиде коупець госᲅь нѣкы ѿ оугорскыѧ земли въ его граⷣ. и по его заповѣди ѡсᲅави возъ свои на оулици града преⷣ полаᲅою. и ᲅоваръ свои на возѣ. а самъ спаше в полаᲅѣ. и пришеⷣ нѣкᲅо, оукраде с воза. рѯ҇, доукаᲅъ злаᲅа. купець же иде къ дракоулѣ. повѣда емоу изгоубленїе злаᲅа. дракоула же гл҇а емоу. поиди всїю нощь ѡбрѧщеши злаᲅо. и повелѣ по всемоу градоу искаᲅи ᲅаᲅѧ. гл҇ѧ, аще не ѡбрѧщеᲅсѧ ᲅаᲅь. ᲅо ве (//209v) сь граⷣ погоублю. и повелѣ свое злаᲅо несъ положиᲅи на возѣ в нощи. и приложи единъ злаᲅои. коупец же въсᲅавъ и ѡбрѣᲅе злаᲅо. и проче единою и дващи. ѡбрѣᲅашеⷭ҇ единъ лишнїи злаᲅои. и шеⷣ къ дракоулѣ гл҇а, гдр҇ю ѡбреᲅоⷯⷯ҇ злаᲅо. и се есᲅь единъ злаᲅои не мои, лишнїи. ᲅогⷣа же приведоша и ᲅаᲅѧ ѡноⷢ҇ и съ злаᲅоⷨ. и гл҇а коупцю иди с мироⷨ҇. аще бы ми еси не повѣдалъ злаᲅо, гоᲅовъ быⷯⷯ҇ и ᲅебе с симъ

  ᲅаᲅемъ на колъ посадиᲅи.

  He commanded that the building be locked up and set on fire, and all those who were there burned. And he said to his boyars, “And now you know why I did this. And there will be no one poor in my land, but all (will be) rich. Second, I emancipated them so that no one of this world would suffer from poverty or from illness.”

  
  

  Once two Latin [Catholic] monks came to him from the Hungar-ian lands for alms. He ordered them to separate. And he sum-moned one of them to him; he showed him around the court-yard—the innumerable number of people on stakes and on the wheel—and asked him: “Did I do well? How are those on the stake?” He [the monk] said, “No, Master, you do evil and punish without mercy. A master ought to be merciful. But you on the wheel are martyrs.” Dracula summoned the other and asked him the same. He answered: “You, Master, are placed from God to excessively punish evildoers, and to grieve those who do good. But you carry out your accepted deeds in excess.” He [Dracula] summoned the first [monk] and said to him: “Why did you come from the monastery and from your cell to a great master, not knowing anything? And now the same will be said: that you are a martyr. I want you to be made a martyr, and you will be a martyr with them.” And he commanded him to be put on the stake but ordered the other to be given 50 gold ducats, saying: “You are a knowledgeable man.” He ordered him into the cart and to be lead away with honor to the Hungarian land.

  
  

  Once a merchant guest came to his town from the Hungarian lands. According to his [Dracula’s] instructions, he [the mer-chant] left his own cart in the street in front of the palace and his goods in the cart, while he slept in the palace. And some-one came and stole 160 ducats of gold from the cart. And the merchant went to Dracula and told him about the loss of the gold. Dracula then said to him, “Go, and tonight you will dis-cover the gold.” And he commanded that the thief be searched for through the entire town, saying, “If the thief is not found, I will destroy the entire town.” And he ordered his own gold to be brought and put in the cart at night, and he added one piece of gold. The merchant got up and discovered the gold and after he counted it once and twice he found one extra piece of gold. And he went to Dracula and said, “Master, I found the gold and this is one extra piece of gold that is not mine.” And at the same time, the thief was brought in with the gold. And Dracula said to the merchant, “Go in peace; if you had not told me about the [extra] gold, I was going to impale you with the thief on the stake.”

  
  

  Аще жена, каѧ ѿ моужа прелюбы съᲅвори. ѡн же велѧше срамъ еи вырѣзаᲅи и кожю содраᲅи. и привѧзаᲅи еѧ нагоу и ко (//210r)жоу ᲅоу на сᲅолпѣ среⷣ града и ᲅорга повѣсиᲅи, и двц҇амъ кои дв҇ьсᲅва не сохранѧ , и вдова҇ⷨ ᲅако҇ⷤ, а иныⷨ҇ сосца ѿрезахꙋ. ѡвыⷨ҇ же кожоу содравше со срама еѧ, и роженъ желѣзенъ разжегши вонзахоу въ сра҇ⷨⷨ еи, и оусᲅы исхожаше. и ᲅако привѧзана сᲅоѧше оу сᲅолпа нага. дондеⷤ҇ пло и косᲅи еи распадоуᲅсѧ, иⷧ҇ пᲅица҇ⷨ в сиⷣѣ боуде.

  
  

  Единоюⷤ҇ ѧздѧщоу емоу поуᲅеⷨ҇ и оузрѣ на нѣкоеⷨ҇ сиромахѣ срачицю издраноу хоудоу. и въпроси его, имаши ли женоу. ѡн же ѿвѣща имамъ, гдр҇ю. ѡн же гл҇а веди мѧ в доⷨ҇ ᲅвои да вижю. и оузрѣ женоу его младоу соущоу и зрⷣавоу. и гл҇а моужоу еѧ. вѣ сили ленꙸ (//210v) сѣѧлъ. ѡн же ѿвѣща гиⷭ҇ много имаⷨ лноу и показа емоу много лноу, и гл҇а женѣ его да почᲅо ᲅы лѣносᲅь имѣеши к моужоу своемоу. ѡнъ долженъ есᲅь сѣѧᲅи и ѡраᲅи и ᲅебе храниᲅи. а ᲅы должна еси на моужа своего ѡдежю свѣᲅлоу и лѣпоу чиниᲅи. а ᲅы и срачици не хощеши емоу оучиниᲅи, а зрⷣавоу соущоу ᲅѣлоⷨ҇. ᲅы еси повинна а не моужь ᲅвои. ащеⷧ҇ бы моуⷤ҇ⷤ не сѣѧлъ лноу. ᲅо бы, моуⷤ ᲅвои повиненъ быⷧ҇. и повелѣ еи роуцѣ ѿсѣщи. и ᲅроупъ еѧ на колъ всадиᲅи.

  If any wife committed adultery against her husband, he [Dracu-la] would order them to cut out her shame5 and rip off her skin and bind her naked, and her skin would be put on a pillar in the middle of town to be hung up in the marketplace. Dracula ordered the same be done to a virgin whose virginity was not protected; and in the case of widows, their breasts cut off. In other cases, they ripped off the skin from the woman’s shame, and brought hot irons which they thrust into her shame and out of her mouth. And thus, she would stand, bound naked to the pillar, until her body and bones fell apart or she became food

  
  

  Once Dracula was being driven along the road and noticed a poor man and asked him whether he had a wife. He answered: “I do, Master.” Dracula then said: “Bring me to your home, so I can see.” And he beheld his young and healthy wife, and said to her husband: “Do you sow linen?” He answered: “Master, I have many linens.” And he showed him the many linens. And Dracula said to the wife, “Why do you show idleness toward your own husband? He must sow and plough and protect you. And you must make your husband light and decent clothing. But you do not want to make him shirts, though your body is healthy. You are guilty, but not your husband. If your husband did not sow linen, then your husband would be guilty.” And he commanded her hand chopped off and her corpse put on the stake.

  
  

  Нѣкогдаⷤ҇ ѡбѣдоваше поⷣ ᲅроупїемъ мрᲅ҇выⷯ҇ члв҇къ, иже (//211r) на колїе саженыⷯ҇ , мно҇ⷤсмво бо ѡкроуⷢ҇ сᲅола его. ѡн же среди ихъ ꙗдѧше, и ᲅѣмъ оуслажашеⷭ҇. слоугаⷤ҇ его иⷤ҇ преⷣ нимъ ꙗсᲅи сᲅавлѧше. смрадоу ѡного не моги ᲅерпѣᲅи, и заᲅкноу носъ. и на сᲅранꙋ главоу свою склони. ѡн же вопроси его, чᲅо раⷣ̏ ᲅак оуинишь. ѡн же ѿᲅвѣща гдр҇ю не могу смрада сего ᲅерпѣᲅи. дракоула же, ᲅоу, и повелѣ его на колъ всадиᲅи. гл҇ѧ, ᲅамо ᲅи есᲅь высоко жиᲅи смраⷣ не можеᲅь ᲅебе доиᲅи.

  
  

  Иногдаⷤ҇ прїиде ѿ оугорскаⷢ҇ королѧ маᲅᲅѣашѧ а поклисарь до него, члв҇къ не малъ болѧринъ, в лѧсⷯⷯ҇ѣ родоⷨ҇. и повелѣ емꙋ сѣсᲅи с собою на ѡбѣдѣ среⷣ̏ (//211v) ᲅроупїѧ ᲅого. и преⷣ нимъ лежаше единъ колъ велми дебелъ и высокъ весь позлащенъ. и вопроси а поклисарѧ дракоула. чᲅо раⷣ̏ оучинихъ сеи кол, ᲅако повѣж ми,“Tell me, why did I make the stake this way?” посол же ᲅой велми оубоѧсѧ и гл҇а. гдр҇ю мниᲅ ми сѧ ᲅако нѣки великїи члв҇къ преⷣ

  ᲅобою согрѣши. и хощеши емоу почᲅеноу смр҇ᲅь оучиниᲅи паче ниыⷯ҇ . дракоула же гл҇а, право реклъ еси ᲅы еси велика гдр҇ѧ посолъ кралевьскьї ᲅебѣ оучиниⷯ҇ сеи колъ.

  Sometimes he dined under the corpses of the dead, who were impaled on the stake, a number [of them] around his table. He ate in the middle of them and took delight [in it]. His servant, having placed [the food] in front of him to eat, could not endure the stench and shut his nose and turned his head to the side. Dracula asked him “Why did you do that?” He answered: “Mas-ter, I can not endure the stench.” Dracula then commanded him to be impaled on the stake, saying: “There you dwell so high, the stench cannot reach you.”

  
  

  Another time an ambassador from the Hungarian King Matthi-as6 came to him; the person was a noble boyar7, a Pole by birth. And he commanded him to sit with him for dinner in the middle of the corpses. And before them lay one thick, golden, and high stake, and Dracula asked the ambassador, “Tell me, why did I make the stake this way?” The envoy was very frightened and said: “Master, I assume thus: a great person before you sinned. And you want to make his death more honorable than others’.” Dracula said: “You spoke correctly, you are an envoy of a great master. This stake is prepared for you.”

  
  

  3

  
  

  ѡн же ѿвѣща, гдр҇ю аще досᲅоиное смр҇ᲅи содѣлалъ боудоу, ᲅвори еⷤ҇ хощеши првⷣиы бо еси соуⷣѧ, не ᲅы повиненъ моеи смр҇ᲅи но азъ (//212r) самъ. дракоулаⷤ҇ расмиѧсѧ и ре꙽꙽҇, аще бы ми еси не

  ᲅако ѿвѣщаⷧ҇ воисᲅиноу бы, быⷧ҇ еси на семъ колѣ. и почᲅи его велми и ѡдаривъ ѿпусᲅи гл҇ѧ. ᲅы, вправдоу ходи на поклисарсᲅво ѿ великыⷯ҇ гдр҇еи к великыⷨ҇ ѡ гдр҇емъ. наоучен бо еси съ гдр҇ьми великыми говориᲅи. прочїи же да не дерзноуᲅь. но первое оучими боудоуᲅь какъ имъ съ гдр҇ьми великыми бесѣдоваᲅи.

  
  

  ᲅаковъ ѡбычаи имѣаше дракоула. ѿколе к немꙋ прихожⷣаше посолъ. ѿ цр҇ѧ иⷧ҇ ѿ королѧ неизѧщенъ и не оумѣаше проᲅивъ кознеⷨ҇ кᲅо ѿвѣщаᲅи, ᲅо, на колъ его всажаше, гл҇ѧ не азъ повиненъ ᲅвоеи смр҇ᲅи, иⷧ҇ гдр҇ь ᲅвои. иⷧ҇ ᲅы (// 212v) самъ, на мене ничтоⷤ҇ рци зла. аще гдр҇ь ᲅвои вѣдаꙗ ᲅебе малоумна и не наоучена послал ᲅѧ есᲅь ко мнѣ к великооумноу гдр҇ю. ᲅо гдр҇ь ᲅвои оубил ᲅѧ есᲅь. ащеⷧ҇ самъ дерзнⷶ҇лъ еси не наоучивсѧ. ᲅо самъ оубилъ еси себѧ ᲅако поклисарю оучинѧше колъ высокъ. и позлащенъ весь, и на него всажⷣаше. и гдр҇ю его ᲅѣ рѣчи ѿписоваше с прочими. да не шле к великоумноу гдр҇ю малооумна и ненаоучена мꙋжа в посольсᲅво.

  He answered, “Master, if I have done something suitable for death, do as you wish. Righteous is your judgement. You are not guilty of my death, but I am.” Dracula laughed and said: “If you had not answered me truthfully, you would have been on that same stake.” He showed him great honor and released him, saying, “You justly go in embassy from a great master to a great master. You know how to speak with great rulers. The rest will not dare8. But first they will be taught how to converse with great masters.”

  
  

  Dracula had such a custom that when an unrefined envoy came to him, from a tsar or king and did not know how to answer his cunning [questions], then he was impaled on the stake, saying: “I am not guilty of your death, or your master,” “or you yourself. But say nothing ill about me. If your master, knowing you are unwise and uneducated, sent you here to me, to a wise master, then your master killed you; if you brought yourself, unprepared, then you killed yourself.” Thus (he) arranged for the ambassa-dor the highly gilded stake and impaled him on it, and sent a complaint to his master with another (envoy) so that the ruler would not send a wise leader an unwise and uneducated man as an ambassador.

  
  

  Оучиниша же емоу масᲅери бочкы желѣзны. ѡн же насыпа иⷯ҇ⷯ злаᲅа в рѣкоу положи. а масᲅеровъ ᲅѣⷯ҇ посѣщи повелѣ, да никтоⷤ҇ оувѣсᲅь съдѣла(// 213v) ннаго имъ ѡкаансᲅва, ᲅо кмо ᲅезо имениᲅы емоу дїавол.

  The craftsmen made iron cisterns for him; Dracula filled them with gold and placed them in the river. And Dracula commanded those craftsmen killed so that no one who carried out the deceit would take them, only he of the same name as the devil9.

  
  

  Нѣкогдаⷤ҇ поиде на неⷢ҇ воинсᲅвоⷨ҇ король оугорскы маᲅᲅѣашь, ѡн же поиде проᲅивъ емоу, и срѣᲅесѧ с ниⷨ҇ и оударишаⷭ҇ь ѡбои, и оухваᲅиша дракоулоу жива, ѿ своихъ изданъ по крамолѣ. и приведень быⷭⷭ дракоула ко кралю, и повелѣ єго меᲅноуᲅи в

  ᲅемницю. и сѣдє в вышеградѣ на доунаи выше воудина. ві҇ лѣ . а на моунᲅьанскои земли посади иного воеводоу. оумершу же ᲅомоу воеводѣ. и краль поусᲅи к немоу в ᲅемнⷩцю. да аще восхоще быᲅи воевода на моунᲅїꙗнскои земли. ꙗко҇ⷤⷤ и первїе,

  ᲅо да лаᲅинь (//214 v)скую вѣроу прїимеᲅь.

  Once the Hungarian King Matthias went against him with his warriors. Dracula met with him, went against him, and both fought, and he [Matthias] captured Dracula alive, handed over by his own [men] in an act of treachery. Dracula was brought to the king, and he commanded him to be thrown in prison. And he was there in Visegrad10 on the Danube, four miles past Buda, for twelve years. And another voivode11 sat in the Wallachian land. When this voivode died, the king went to him [Dracula] in pris-on12, and [said] if he wanted to be the voivode in the Wallachian lands, he would first accept the Latin faith.

  
  

  ащеⷧ҇ же ни, ᲅо оумреᲅи в ᲅемници хощеᲅь. дракоула же возлюби паче временнаго свѣᲅа сладосᲅь, нежели вѣчнаго и бесконечнаго, и ѿпаде православїѧ. и ѿсᲅоупи ѿ исᲅинны. и ѡсᲅави свѣᲅъ и прїа ᲅмоу. оувы не возможе ᲅемничныѧ временныѧ ᲅѧгоᲅы понесᲅи. и оугоᲅовасѧ на бесконечное мчн҇їе , и ѡсᲅави православноую нашоу вѣроу. и прїаᲅъ лаᲅыньскоую прелесᲅь.

  
  

  крал же не ᲅокмо дасᲅь емоу воевоⷣсᲅво на моунᲅьꙗнскои земли. но и сесᲅроу (//215 r) свою роⷣноую дасᲅь емоу в женоу. ѿ неѧ же роⷣ два сн҇а. пожив же мало ꙗко. і̑. лѣ . и ᲅако скончасѧ в ᲅои прельсᲅи. Гл҇юᲅ же ѡ немь ꙗко и в ᲅемници сѣдѧ не ѡсᲅасѧ своего злаго ѡбычаꙗ. но мыши ловѧ и пᲅици на ᲅоргоу покоупаꙗ и ᲅако казнѧше ихъ. ѡвоу на колъ посажаше. а инои главꙋ ѿсѣкаше, а со иныѧ перїе ѡщипⷡав поускаше. и наоучисѧ шиᲅи, и

  ᲅѣмъ в ᲅемници кормлѧшеⷭ҇.

  If not, then he wanted to die in prison. Dracula desired the tem-porary pleasure of this world, rather than the eternal and infinite [pleasure of the afterlife], and retreated from Orthodoxy. And [he] shrank back from the truth and left the light to go into the darkness. Alas, unable to bear the temporary burden of prison, and ready for infinite torment, he left our Orthodox faith

  
  

  The king not only gave him the voivodship in the Wallachian lands, but he gave him his own birth sister as a wife; from her two sons were born. Dracula lived a brief time, ten years, and was tortured in his deceit. They say about him, that sitting in prison, he did not repudiate his wicked customs, but caught mice and bought birds at the market and tortured them. Either [he] put them on the stake or cut off their heads, and from oth-ers plucked out the feathers. He learned how to sow, and so fed himself in prison.

  
  

  егдаⷤ҇ краль изведе его ис ᲅемници, и приведе его на бᲂудинъ. и дасᲅь емоу домъ в пещи проᲅивоу бᲂудина. и еще оукралѧ не былъ. слоучисѧ нѣкоемоу злодѣю оуиᲅи на его дворъ и съхра (//215v)нисѧ. гонѧщїи же прїидоша и начаша искаᲅи и наидоша его. дракоула же восᲅавъ взеⷨ҇ⷨ мечь свой и скочи с полаᲅы, и ѿсѣче главоу присᲅавꙋ ѡномоу держащемоу злодѣѧ, а злодѣѧ ѿпоусᲅи. прочїи же бѣжаша и прїидоша к биревоу, и повѣдаша емоу бывшее. бирев же съ всѣми посадникы, иде ко кралю, жалуѧсѧ на дракоулу. корол же посла к немоу вопрашаѧ. чᲅо раⷣ̏ ᲅаково зло оучини. ѡн же ᲅако ѿвеща. зло никоеⷤ҇ оучиниⷯ҇. но ѡнъ самъ себе оубиⷧ҇. Находѧ разбойнически на великаго гд҇рѧ. домъ всѧкъ ᲅакъ погибнеᲅь. ащеⷧ҇ ᲅо (//216r) ко мнѣ пришел ꙗвиⷧ҇ бы. и азъ во своемъ домоу нашел бы ᲅого злодѣѧ, или бы выдалъ. или просиⷧ҇ его ѿ смр҇ᲅи. kралюⷤ҇ повѣдаша. kоролю же нача смѣѧᲅисѧ и дивиᲅиⷭ҇ его срцⷣю.

  When the king liberated him from the prison and summoned him to Buda, he gave him a home in Pest opposite Buda. But he was not at the king’s court. It happened that some criminal went into his [Dracula’s] courtyard and hid there. Hunters arrived and began to search for [the criminal] and came upon him. Dracula got up, took his sword, galloped from the palace, and cut off the head of the steward who had held the criminal, but released the criminal. The other escaped and came to an administrative official and told him what occurred. The administrative official, along with all the princes, went to the king to lament about Dracula. The King questioned him: “Why did you do such evil?” Dracula then answered that no one could commit a wicked act, without Dracula killing the wrongdoer himself. Approaching the robber in the great master’s home, he killed him. “If he [the stew-ard] had come to me and announced [what happened], then I would have found a criminal in my own house or handed [him] over, or set him free from death (not have killed him).” He was brought to the King. The King began to laugh and marveled at his courage.

  
  

  Конец же его сице, живѧше на мᲂунᲅїанскои земли. и прїидоша на землю еⷢ҇ ᲅоурци, начаша плѣниᲅи. ѡн же оудари на ниⷯ҇ и побѣгоша ᲅоурци. дракули но҇ⷤⷤ воиско безъ млᲅⷭ҇и начаша иⷯ҇ сѣщи. и гнаша иⷯ҇ⷯ дракоулаⷤ҇ ѿ радосᲅи възгнавъ на гороу да видиᲅь како сѣкоуᲅь ᲅоурковъ. и ѿᲅоргъсѧ ѿ воиска ближи ꙶи его, мнѧщиⷭ҇ ꙗко ᲅоурчинъ. и оудари его единъ копїемъ. ѡн же видѣвъ ꙗко ѿ своиⷯⷯ҇ (//216v) оубиваемъ. и ᲅоу оуби своиⷯⷯ҇ оубїиць мечеⷨ҇ своимъ. є҇. его҇ⷤⷤ мнозими копїи сбодоша. и ᲅако оубїенъ быⷭ҇.

  Dracula’s end was thus: he lived in the Wallachian land, and the Turks attacked his land, and began to take prisoners. He struck them and defeated the Turks. Dracula’s army began to cut them down without mercy. Dracula, in joy, rode up the hill to see the Turks cut down. And [he] pulled away from his army, which, close to him, assumed he was a Turk and one of them hit him with a lance. Dracula, seeing that he had been wounded, then killed his own murderer with his sword. Five more lances pierced him, and thus he died.

  
  

  корол же сесᲅроу свою взѧ , и со двѣма сыими, въ оугорскоую землⷻ на боудинъ. единъ при кралевѣ си҇ѣ живе. а дроугїи быⷧ҇ оу вараⷣнскоⷢ҇ бископа и при наⷭ҇ оумре, а ᲅреѧго си҇а сᲅарѣишаⷢ҇ михаила ᲅᲂу же на бᲂуⷣинᲂу видѣхоⷨ҇, ѿ џр҇ѧ ᲅꙋрскаⷢ҇ прибѣгъ ко кралю, еще не женивсѧ прижиⷧ҇ его дракоула съ единою дѣвкою, сᲅефан же молдовскыи з кралевы воли посаⷣ на мꙋнᲅьꙗнскои земли нѣкоего воевоⷣскаго сн҇а влада именеⷨ҇, быⷭ҇ бо ᲅои владъ (//217r) ѿ младенсᲅва инокъ. поᲅомъ и сщ҇енникъ и игоуменъ в монасᲅыри. поᲅомъ росᲅригсѧ и сѣл на воевоⷣсᲅво и женилсѧ, понѧлъ воевоⷣскоую женоу. иже после дракоулы мало побилъ. и оубил его сᲅефанъ волосьскьї, ᲅого женоу понѧлъ и нн҇ѣ воевода на моунᲅьꙗнскои земли владъ, иже

  бывьї чернець и игоуменъ ⁖ В лѣ ѕ҇. ч҇. ч҇. д҇. феⷠ҇ гі҇ преⷤ҇ писаⷧ҇, ᲅаⷤ҇, в лѣᲅ ѕ҇. ч҇. чи҇. геⷩ҇ . ки҇. в дроуⷢ҇е преписаⷯ҇ азъ грѣшныⷯ҇ єфросинъ ⁖

  The King took his sister, along with the two sons, to Buda in the Hungarian land. One son lived under the king. The other was a bishop in Varndinsky and died among us; a third son, the eldest, Mikhail, they saw there in Bud, running to the king from the Turk-ish tsar13. Still unmarried, Dracula had him [Mikhail] with a girl. Stefan the same Moldovan14, following the king’s will, placed in the Wallachian land a son of a voivode named Vlad15. This Vlad was the one who was alone from childhood, then a priest, and the superior in a monastery. Then [Vlad] defrocked and settled down into the voivodship and married. He took the wife of the voivode who was killed a little after Dracula. Stefan of Moldavia killed him, then took that wife. Now the voivode in the Wallachi-an land is [another] Vlad, who was a hermit and solitary. I, the sinful Efrosin, wrote the above on February 12 in the year 6994 [1486], then I rewrote it again in January 28 in the year 6998 [1490]16.

  
  

  Critical Notes

  
  

  1. Muntenia is an Old Slavic term for Greater Wallachia.

  2. Voivode is a term for princes and appointed rulers of Wallachia and Moldavia.

  3. The narrative describes the life of Vlad Tepes (Vlad the Impaler) who ruled Wallachia. Vlad Tepes’ moniker “Dracula” is most likely a reference to his father’s moniker “Dracul,” which means “devil” in Romanian. For more on the etymology, see: Matei Cazacu. Dracula. Boston: Brill, 2017. 3.

  4. Boyars were the highest-ranking nobles of the Russian and Eastern European nobility.

  5. “Shame” in this context is a euphemism for a woman’s genitalia.

  6. Matthias Corvinus, Matthias I, of Hungary and Croatia (ruled 1458-1490). It is believed that his court is the place of origin of the Dracula tale.

  7. Boyars were the highest-ranking nobles of the Russian and Eastern European nobility.

  8. In this instance, it is possible Dracula is saying that other ambassadors would not dare to speak to Dracula in such an honest manner

  9. This line infers that Dracula killed the craftsmen so only he would know where the gold-filled cisterns were.

  10. A castle town in Pest, Hungary, where Matthias Corvinus held a palace.

  11. Voivode is a term for princes and appointed rulers of Wallachia and Moldavia.

  12. Lines 125-128 illustrate a slight discrepancy in the manuscript’s story. How could Dracula go to the marketplace and farm while in prison? It is possible because of his noble status that he was imprisoned within his land holdings.

  13. This can be interpreted as indicating that the son changed allegiances from the Moldavian king to the Turkish tsar.

  14. Reference to Stefan III of Moldavia (1457-1504), who had the military support of Vlad Tepes.

  15. It seems that this son of the voivode Vlad is Dracula’s replacement.

  16. Efrosin, as an Eastern Orthodox Monk, used the Byzantine Calendar. This calendar takes the year 5508 BCE as year one, so to convert a year to the common era, we can subtract 5508.